Be a Match and a Support System

A bone marrow transplant, or stem cell transplant, is a life-changing cancer treatment. As explained by Be The Match, the transplant process starts out with chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy as a means to kill off the cancer cells which simultaneously kills the bone marrow cells as well. Following the cancer therapy comes the donor stem cells which will take the place of the previously-killed cells leaving space for the new ones . Next comes the “miserable period” in which the patient is physically, and subsequently mentally, feeling the effects of chemo/radiation, processes which take a toll on the body and mind in both pain, exhaustion, etc., a period in which support is vital. Post-transplant monitoring checks for engraftment to ensure a successful transplant in which the donor cells are growing in the patient’s blood observable by increases in red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet counts back up to normal levels.

Matching for an allogeneic transplant is a tricky process in that the complexity is much more intense as a match is based on genetic markers called human leukocyte antigens (HLA), proteins found on most of your body’s cells. Due to matching with genetic markers, this affects your donor pool to people with more similar genetic make-ups as you corresponding to ethnic background. While the Be The Match registry has a wide selection of potential donors, the likelihood of a perfect match ranges based on your ethnicity due to the increased or lacking diversity of the donor pool. HLA matching is done via blood test to ensure 8-10 matching markers between patient and donor or alternatively 4-6 markers from cord blood units. As HLA markers are genetic, your immediate family, specifically your siblings, are a potential chance, ~25%, at a perfect match in an immediate manner as you would all have inherited similar HLA patterns from your parents. An imperfect match could decrease the success rate of treating the patient’s disease as well as complicating the recovery process as your body so this is a vital step in ensuring the best chance at engraftment and an overall successful treatment.

A bone marrow transplant is life-altering, physically and emotionally, not only for the patient but for the family. As someone who spent the past year as a part-time caregiver to my mom who received a bone marrow transplant for lymphoma treatment the attestation of the familial toll is first-hand. To watch a loved one suffer during the “miserable period”, which lives up to its name, is a terrifying and unforgettable experience as they fight to push through the treatment into the better parts of recovery. As a daughter, despite being a committed, healthy person between the ages of 18-40, my ability to donate was all but impossible due to the genetic composition of being 50% my mom and 50% my dad resulting in a feeling of helplessness. Luckily, as a white person, my mom had a significantly higher chance of finding a donor compared to a patient who was American Indian, APA, Hispanic, Latino, or especially black. My friend at UNC, also recently diagnosed with lymphoma was going through the process of finding a donor as well through the registry and had a much longer process due to his Hispanic ethnicity pointing out the stark differences patients face medically every day based on systemic issues. Whether you are signing up to be on the registry, learning more about cord blood donation during your pregnancy as an option for you to partake in, or any other supportive measure you take to support BMT patients, you are helping to save a life. I would give everything I have as a daughter to save my mom who gave me everything, but it is only with the help of donors that people like her can have this opportunity at life.

COVID-19 Delta Variant Breakthroughs

As more and more information on the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant comes to light with research, clinical trials, and data collection. With the characteristic of being about twice as infectious as other COVID-19 strains, as explained by Wadman in this Science article, exploring the mutational ability and genetic structure of this variant is vital. Despite all the uncertainty of the exact aspects of COVID contraction and resistance, new lab experimentation allows researchers to safely and efficiently study SARS-CoV-2 mutations. The most promising result of this was “a little-noticed mutation in Delta that allows the virus to stuff more of its genetic code into host cells, thus boosting the chances that each infected cell will spread the virus to another cell”, a mutation that “makes the virus better at making infectious particles and because of that, it spreads more quickly”. This discovery further explains the high Delta infection rates along with producing foundations for the comprehension of how future COVID-19 variants might function in their viral replication abilities. The creation of this research tool makes this experimental process more efficient and accessible widening the ability for testing on this topic- a vital concept during a pandemic with vast population in desperate need of more information.

This breakthrough tool is a tweak of VLPs, particles that “contain all a virus’ structural proteins but lack its genome” allowing researchers to simulate and rework viral cell binding and invasions without subjecting the experiment to unexpected cell spreading. This new adaptation includes the insertion of a part of mRNA that “causes cells invaded by the VLPs to light up and glow” as an indicator of VLP success. The Gladstone Institute of Virology explains in detail the benefits of this innovation leading to the Delta breakthrough of the R203M mutation that changes the nucleocapsid protein promoting the ability to stabilize and release the virus’ genetic material. This visible marking ability allows for more obvious comparing in the infectious levels and cell replication abilities of the various COVID-19 strains. With this tool pointing researchers to targets in the SARS-CoV-2 replication sequences it has become revolutionary in the COVID-19 pandemic research field.

As a comparison to earlier versions of these virus-like particles in viral experimentation, particularly COVID-19 research, this new and improved process allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the virus. With the ability to interfere in the processes researchers are able to monitor and predict virus behavior and variant patterns in transmission efficacy and infectious nature helping people better prepare for safe measure and creation of necessary vaccines or drugs. While the replication isn’t an exact replacement, it is vital in lab biosafety and clinical development. For the sake of COVID-19 and its vast unknowns, technological improvement in this regard is incredibly influential in exploring current viral mutations in association with the new variants and its implications on our medical advancements. This article and new tool gives hope in the ability for other labs like Gladstone to get ahead of, or at least keep up with, the constant modifications thrown our way by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Tuberculosis During COVID

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria that can spread via droplet transmission mainly affecting the lungs, as defined by the Mayo clinic. Typically our immune systems fight off the tuberculosis bacteria, M. tuberculosis, before you get sick which is how we can determine latent from active TB. Active TB can present with extended coughing, coughing up blood or mucus, chest pain, or pain with breathing or coughing, unintentional weight loss, fatigue, fever, night sweats, chills, or loss of appetite. “People with active tuberculosis must take many types of medications for months to get rid of the infection and prevent antibiotic resistance.” Historically, starting in 1985 tuberculosis infections were on the rise in the United States due to the immuno-compromising HIV/AIDS, but decreased again in the last 90’s. Now with the introduction of COVID-19, another significant pandemic affective large chunks of the world’s population, we are seeing impacts on this pulmonary-targeting disease yet again.

In countries such as Africa and India which due to environmental and social structures tuberculosis has been an issue for decades. However, the impact of COVID has presented to be both beneficial and negative. While the diagnosis rate seems to be decreasing significantly due to increased mask wearing and physical separation, we also see increased difficulties in treating the current cases of TB due to stress on social and medical systems that allowed for easier access to the treatments. As explained by Jain et al.’s 2020 paper, India’s out-patient challenges skyrocketed as patients and providers had to navigate the world of telehealth balanced with in-person checkups and direct treatments. This included extents such as home visits to ensure medicine administration as well as enrollment in the DOTS program for virtual video consultations to monitor progress and any emerging symptoms. As the modes of transmission of COVID-19 and TB overlap, the worldwide efforts into advancing aspects of COVID prevention, care, and monitoring have directly aided those of TB especially in regards to the advancements in contact tracing and subsequent testing.

Despite the technological advancements shared by COVID and TB researchers, other healthcare-related observations demonstrate the negative impacts that our pandemic is having on TB epidemics. This mainly includes the attention drawn away from TB care resulting in decreasing availability for TB medicine due to limited treatment support and medication stock-outs occurring in the early months of COVID. With this treatment delay, concerns increased for the impact on TB cases improvements as the antibiotics, usually isoniazid INH with rifampin, pyrazinamide and ethambutol, used to alleviate risk, were of low access to developing areas, such as parts of India where TB is most common and COVID has the least preventative measures, as explained by McQuaid et al.’s 2021 paper. Between the quarantines, curfews, and delivery strains, TB patients are suffering in the time of COVID with the need for healthcare workers to re-evaluate how treatment occurs. The silver-lining remains however that these precautions causing stress on the current TB patients are also what is slashing rates of new diagnoses with COVID precautions working double-duty against the just as fatal TB.

The Advancements and Applications of CRISPR-Cas9

CRISPR-Cas9 is known for its revolutionary ability to aid in genetic engineering for eukaryotic cells. As described by Ran et al.’s Nature article, “the RNA-guided Cas9 nuclease from the microbial clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) adaptive immune system can be used to facilitate efficient genome engineering by simply specifying a 20-nt targeting sequence within its guide RNA”, or in other words, focusing on detailed genetic alternations by marking 20 nucleotides at a time for change. Its efficiency and specificity separate it from other genetic engineering technology of its time such as ZFNs and TALENs due to its “Watson-Crick base pairing…representing a system that is markedly easier to design, highly specific, efficient and well-suited for high-throughput and multiplexed gene editing for a variety of cell types and organisms”. Through its lower cost, ease of customization, cleavage pattern, and editing efficiency, CRISPR-Cas9 can be applied in various scenarios to genetically alter plants, bacteria, and animals. In regards to humans, advancements in this technology have opened doors to its medical applications such as treatment for sickle cell anemia, Huntington’s Disease, HIV, and cancers such as multiple myeloma.

University of Pennsylvania has been spearheading the exploration in CRISPR-Cas9 uses for myeloma treatment. As explained in this recent article detailing their clinical trails, researchers are working to genetic alter the patient’s immune cells as a path to further targeting tumors and inhibiting/reducing growth. Methodologies included harvesting cells from patient bone marrow and editing the T cells with the goals of more accurately targeting cancer cells before placing them back into the patient. This trial has also been applied for a sarcoma patient as on 2019. According to this article in 2020, also by Penn Medicine, they provided updates on the advancements of these trials stating “first, we can successfully perform multiple edits with precision during manufacturing, with the resulting cells surviving longer in the human body than any previously published data have shown. Second, thus far, these cells have shown a sustained ability to attack and kill tumors”. This article explains the significant progress of the antigen targeting being experimented with and hope in this process for quick and safe treatment in just one year of these trials being conducted despite the limitations such as off-target mutagenesis of which would be explored through larger trials in order to attempt in minimizing the occurrences of such modifications.

CRISPR use goes much further than life-changing medical treatments however, and expand in to much more high-end, superficial, uses. Genetic engineering in babies is a topic that has interested me for years since I first did a research project on it 3 years ago at the start of my UNC academic journey. This type of genetic engineering can be a result of many different goals but I see it all relatively under the concept of cosmetic embryo selection, “designer babies”. So much of the results of genetic engineering on the gene pool are still being discovered, yet, all species’ populations are found to have a naturally varying gene pool for the reason of differing traits allowing for ideal survival. For example, if blue eyes were seen to people as being more attractive than brown eyes this could potentially lead to parents favoring embryos showing the genetic makeup for this physical trait and could become a common thread in IVF selections. While they may be favored cosmetically, they also have a weakness: lighter colored eyes are unable to protect themselves from UV damage to the same capacity as those with darker eyes. This extreme scenario of cosmetic selection could then potentially lead to more people subjected to cataracts or vision loss due to UV damage. The overall purpose of this example is showing the domino effect that editing DNA can have on future generations, usually unintended. Messing with either scientific evolution, or what others consider to be “God’s plan”, is something that can have unforeseen long-term scientific complications that extend the risks beyond the benefits of decreasing a family’s stress or creating a “low-quality” life for a child, such as is often the attitude of parents finding out their child might have Down Syndrome or other life-altering genetic differences. While the implementation of cosmetic embryo/fetal screening and embryo selection/engineering, specifically through CRISPR, can be seen as moral and a means to ease people’s life stressors, it definitely has the ability to lead to the global issue of serious genetic pool degradation, and therefore if left unregulated, ultimately doing much more harm than good. 

Our Diet’s Affect on Mental Health

Continuing the previously discussed topic regarding our gut microbiome and its effect on Autism Spectrum Disorder, we look at other aspects of diet and how they impact our mental health. Especially during the time of college when our finances and time are limited, students often turn to easily stored and accessible snacks often plagued with sugar and/or artificial sweeteners. As explained by the Nature article, our diet in America consists greatly of processed, unhealthy, food that reduces the variety of our gut microbiome, therefore increasing inflammation, leading to a higher risk of depression. With the decrease in fresh food we are depriving ourselves of vital nutrients including “polyphenols in plant-based foods and omega-3 fatty acids in fish”, both of which strengthen our mental health. We continue to see proof of the gut-brain axis, such as in this NCBI article, with common snack foods today as health trends show definitive evidence of our GI tract’s health directly affecting our central nervous system.

One common yet shocking example of this I personally have in my apartment is Motts Apple Sauce. This single serving snack that would seem healthy as it is by nature a product of a fruit contains 23 grams of sugar. While it does contain apple, a naturally sweet fruit, it also contains high fructose corn syrup. This is a snack commonly fed to children and is only one snack of many contributing early on to this systemic overuse of unnecessary sugars in our food. An additional example from a recent grocery trip includes my Nutri-Grain bars which contains 12 grams of sugar. These bars are something I often find myself eating for breakfast with a protein shake or as a snack during a busy day without ever looking at or considering the sugar content. Sugar additives have become so common in our society it even sneaks its way into our “healthy foods” and therefore disrupting our naturally occurring gut microbiome with unnatural substances on the daily!

As a result of this, one lifestyle marker I find to be beneficial across the board is eating more directly grown, fresh fruits and vegetables! As mentioned by the Nature article, “the more ultra-processed foods you eat, the greater your risk of depression”. As someone who has been in college for four years, I can confidently say these are the biggest deficiencies in my diet as the often come in too large of portions for myself to eat in a short period of time before they go bad and don’t become my priority financially or health-wise. When I do purchase them from the grocery store, I become paranoid about cleaning them before ever consuming them due to the unknown substances, most preservatives, layered on them to keep them looking fresh. The longer the time I go without fresh fruit or vegetables, the more I find myself feeling slower and less energetic. I have found a simple fix for this is attending local farmers markets as it not only allows for me to buy fruits and vegetables in smaller portions for a good price that will be benefitting local merchants and farmers, I also have the piece of mind that there are less to no preservatives on them, as well as the fact that it gets me out of the apartment in the sun for a little bit! It has been a crucial change benefitting my mindset directly as well as indirectly through the significant increase in natural, fresh, fruit and vegetable consumption!

Superbugs and Antibiotic Resistance

While superbugs may sound like something fun because of their name, they are actually a large factor leading to the significant issue of antibiotic resistance. As explained by the Dr. Tosh in this Mayo Clinic article, superbugs are actually “strains of bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi that are resistant to most of the antibiotics and other medications commonly used to treat the infections they cause”. Even if you haven’t heard the term superbugs you most likely know the bacterial issues such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and certain skin infections caused by these resistant bacteria. Many of these are common illnesses and often related to healthcare associated infections (HAIs) as these bacteria can be passed between patients via poor PPE and hygiene in hospitals and other healthcare settings. Superbugs can affect anyone but you see higher risks for infection as a result of exposure via HAIs or previously having a weakened immune system due to a chronic illness.

As the spread of superbugs is continually exacerbated by their spread in healthcare settings I see a large contributing factor to antibiotic resistance therefore being the lack of proper hygienic processes and effective monitoring for emerging cases. According to this 2021 article, many superbug-related cases “go undiagnosed or are misdiagnosed as other conditions” as a result of this lacking system for proper testing. One such superbug known for its prevalence as an HAI and superbug is C. diff which not only, as discussed in class, is an illness that worsens a patients conditions in relation to the limitation of antibiotic treatments as well as the physical state of their wellbeing adding on yet another draining medical issue to fight off. Secondly, we are seeing a rise in antibiotic prescriptions allowing for new strains of superbugs to form adapting to the scientific progress being made. Each new antibiotic being produced simply becomes ineffective after a certain amount of time as superbugs navigate the process of creating widespread resistance to these. Further explained by the same 2021 article we see a rise in progress occurring regarding anti-fungal drugs to combat this as an alternative to treatment of superbugs- exclusively created for human medicine unlike previously used fungicides.

In regards to the previously mentioned issues contributing to the increase in superbugs and subsequently antibiotic resistance, I believe a stronger system for monitoring and preferably preventing the spread of healthcare setting-related superbugs would be most effective. By limiting these transmissions via proper hygiene and consistent testing, removing their prevalence from these areas would hopefully decrease their occurrences enough to allow for new antibiotic treatments to take without fighting the developing superbugs. Healthcare associated superbugs, specifically C. auris, is an ideal example as it has strong survival skills against both hygiene processes and antibiotics becoming a leading cause behind a significant number of an India hospital’s COVID-19 ICU patients. Potentially a slight improvement in PPE and cleaning procedures could have altered this outcome. Additionally, increasing the research for and eventual use of anti-fungal drugs could simply be an alternate route for treatment. Not any one route could eliminate antibiotic resistance however small changes and increased research can make all the difference.

Roundup and its Effects

Roundup and other herbicides have been quite controversial over the past few decades in regards to its unintended effects on the humans and animals that come into contact with it. Roundup is a glyphosate-based herbicide that can be harmful when not applied properly and when animal interference is not limited after application. According to the CDC’s toxic substance registry, human exposure to this chemical most occurs during application through poor hand hygiene and inhalation potentially causing skin irritation along with respiratory effects such as irritation in the nose or asthma. Due to the nature of the job this is most common in farmers and workers directly spraying this herbicide. Stating other reputable sources, the article also mentions the debatable carcinogenic effects of glyphosate as well in that animal studies have found this result in association with developmental effects (such as lower body weight and problems with bone and organ growth) when pregnant animals ingested large amounts of glyphosate. The main prevention for Roundup issues is proper PPE and hygiene during application as well as keeping animals and humans out of direct contact for up to 24 hours after spraying. The CDC is a reputable source in and of itself as it would be void of the potential economic pressures that other sources might be subject to in finding the benefits of Roundup for its efficient use in the agricultural industry as well as its main goal for medical/scientific human safety.

Even shown by the CDC, the effects of glyphosate are varied and not definitive. The research continues in coming to a direct conclusion even after decades of research. As demonstrated by information published by this CRAAP source from 2020, controversial ideas regarding the extent of effects caused by glyphosate in Roundup, especially in connection with lymphoma, are still up for debate. Previous studies did show strong associations between the use of Roundup and non-Hodgkin lymphoma were relatively underestimated despite most information stemming from a single study. The article presents data from both sides of the argument with the conclusion that simply we need more information, especially since the majority of research coming from a decade ago.

Approaching the topic from the environmental/agricultural side of things allows for a balanced understanding as you consider the benefits of glyphosate usage. This review from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2019 details the benefits of glyphosate in agricultural means for product safety as well as invasive species control for various ecosystems. Its low cost and broad-spectrum nature makes it very desirable in these fields and a hard substance to replace. Like most public health debates there are multiple angles to consider where health concerns rival economic gain and time efficiency in the eyes of many, especially in situations such as described in the previous source regarding the dated study on its carcinogenic effects. As for residential options, like most things, I say do what you want based on the extent of your research- it becomes a personal decision more directly affecting your personal health and the health of your family (two and four-legged) than anything else. However, for more regulated agricultural and environmental systems, I see how the many benefits can overshadow the doubt caused by previous studies. The conclusions I have drawn across the multiple sources were first, we need more research that is repeated and more definitive results to surely regulate such a product, but two, that with control of the glyphosate spread during application to unintended places in both the environment and human bodies its usage can be contained and more beneficial than risky.

Vaccine Hesitancy

Vaccine hesitancy is creating chaos in the time of COVID-19 but began its hectic reigns decades ago exacerbated by since discredited scientific articles such as the Wakefield Study connecting vaccines to autism. This 2018 article enlightens us on the major issues of the study and how it came to create a bias result that lastingly damaged the view of vaccines for a large population of people. Beginning with the aspect that a control group for this study would need to include healthy kids without preexisting medical conditions. Much of the subject pool were instead chosen, non-randomly, from an anti-vaccination group called Justice Awareness and Basic Support (JABS), an organization for those with “vaccine-damaged” children. With anti-vax, specifically anti-MMR vaccine, parents and a preexisting medical condition, these subjects therefore create an invalid result compared to control and subject groups selected randomly. In addition, Wakefield fell to the dilemma scientists face of getting results you want in order to support your beliefs. As a result, Wakefield and this fellow researchers had a specific outcome in mind and therefore affected their experimental process even neglecting to replicate the study for assurance purposes. Between Wakefields obvious research biases, inconsistencies, and anti-vax employers, the fact that it took until 2010, over 12 years, for this sham of a study to be discredited it amazing. Lancet’s retraction however did not change the minds of most who used the Wakefield Study along with others in their fear and advocacy against vaccines. During the 12 years this study was a published piece it did its damage not only preventing a population in a generation of children not being vaccinated, but spurred even more generations to consider vaccinations and the effect they apparently could have. Despite the retraction the minds of people had been made up and use it to this day as support for their own biases as Wakefield had done himself.

Comparatively, this article in The New England Journal of Medicine from 2002, a few years after the Wakefield Study, discusses the topic of the MMR vaccines connection to autism once again. The study was conducted on a cohort of 537,303 children that had received the MMR vaccine. After preliminary information collected regarding the vaccine, autistic diagnosis status, and confounding variables of the children, the retrospective study was done. Researchers identified 316 children with a diagnosis of autistic disorder and 422 with a diagnosis of other autistic-spectrum disorders. These results excluded subjects that passed away as well as ones that stopped the follow up visits in order to track their results. In regards to relative risk, the RR for an autistic disorder in the group of vaccinated children, as compared with the unvaccinated group, was 0.92, with the RR of another autistic-spectrum disorder being 0.83. As these relative risk results were less than 1, it “indicates a decreased risk for the exposed group, indicating that perhaps exposure actually protects against disease occurrence”. Not only does the vaccine not hurt the subjects, but it helps them. Alternatively from the Wakefield Study, this research was conducted without apparent bias throughout its methods and therefore resulted in the valid confident conclusion that did not support the idea of the MMR vaccination causing autism.

As someone who has spent her time studying science especially as it related to a future in medicine, I find myself trusting of the scientific process and what that means for our vaccinations, despite any distrust in our government and its hold in the medical field. For this reason, I do my research in understanding what it going into my body as much as possible, but always end up at the conclusion of getting a vaccine when available for my safety and that of others. As far as vaccine hesitancy goes, I have personal experience in just how strong of a belief this can be in someone. You see the willingness to submit any evidence, no matter how discredited, as a supportive piece to explain their actions and motivations. As a medical anthropology major I have learned how to treat a patient with alternative understandings of medicine due to religion, previous medical issue, a varying cultural understanding of medical causes, etc., but when it comes to what I see as just an ignorant individual with all the resources to comprehend vaccines and their effect on the human body coupled with what they see as a political stance, I find it to be somewhat of a lost cause. My focus now turns to our new generations, specifically the children of anti-vax parents, to educate on credited studies, legitimate microbiological sciences, and the break between medicine and politics, in order to slowly eradicate the disease that I see to be ignorance in relation to anti-vaccination beliefs.

COVID-19 Vaccines: Pfizer versus J&J

Vaccine efficacy is one of our most commonly debated about topics right now. Within this discussion includes the comparison between the RNA vaccines (Pfizer and Moderna) and the Johnson and Johnson vaccine. This comparison is explained by Yale Medicine in this recent article. The Pfizer vaccine, the one I received, is an FDA approved COVID-19 vaccine consisting of 2 shots with a 3 week gap between them. This mRNA vaccine was created to utilize a “tiny piece of genetic code from the SARS CoV-2 virus to host cells in the body, essentially giving those cells instructions, or blueprints, for making copies of spike proteins.” The spikes infect the host cells and “stimulate an immune response, producing antibodies and developing memory cells that will recognize and respond if the body is infected with the actual virus.” This case of artificial active immunity prepares your body for a possible future exposure without ever exposing you to the virus itself. As for Johnson and Johnson, this vaccine uses a different approach called a carrier vaccine. An engineered adenovirus acts as a “shell to carry genetic code on the spike proteins to the cells (similar to a Trojan Horse)”. As the shell and the code of the adenovirus is inactivated it is harmless, however, to produce the SARS CoV-2 spike protein, the code enters the cells. With this spike protein, same as Pfizer, it will prepare the body’s immune system to fight COVID by creating antibodies and memory cells for future exposures. The final advantage to the J&J vaccine includes its ability to be stored and higher temperatures and for longer durations compared to the Pfizer vaccine, allowing for this shot, along with its single-dose advantage, to be dedicated to serving rural or other underserved populations that might otherwise have trouble receiving a vaccine.

As more research is conducted, an increase of information comes out, most recently including that of a booster shot for the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines. Currently, in regards to Pfizer, this booster shot has been advised by the FDA for patients at risk- organ transplant recipients, immunocompromised individuals, those over 65, for example. According to the previous article, most studies find the mRNA vaccines to be most effective against the alpha and beta strains of COVID-19 where Johnson and Johnson’s carrier vaccine is the most effective comparatively for the delta variant. The boosters act as a manner to increase the spike-binding antibodies and therefore can better the body’s preparation for a COVID-19 exposure.

Vaccine hesitancy is a difficult issue to discuss as there are various reasons for one to find distrust in the COVID-19 vaccines. Misconceptions are the largest enemy to the vaccine. Due to false news spreading amidst the fear and political involvement in the pandemic, the beliefs of certain populations are leading to acts of selfishness and ignorance. From the distrust in the FDA and the CDC we see alternative measures being taken using suggestions from un-reputable sources as replacements for any of the vaccines. The misconceptions range from speed of vaccine creation and lack of testing to the idea that the vaccine will give you COVID to the notion that the government is only giving out vaccines to track its citizens. Other reasons include more historical issues including America’s long history of ignoring or harming underserved populations from the use of minorities for testing to the lack of healthcare access for rural communities. These consistent occurrences have led to generations with deep-rooted skepticism of our government, healthcare workers, etc.. Finally, religious teachings have a large effect on vaccine hesitancy as our country’s healthcare workers fight to provide the understandings of the biological benefits of the vaccines in addition to the beliefs of the healing power of religious beings. On the road to a vaccinated majority we as a society and our healthcare professionals must combat these reasons for vaccine hesitancy for the hope of one day having herd immunity.

Microbiomes and their Effect on Illnesses

Autism Spectrum Disorder is a developmental disability characterized by potential struggles with communication, interaction, behavior, and learning. As explained in this 2019 article, new research has been beginning to connect the diagnosis of ASD with one’s gut microbiota. Due to the “gut-brain” axis, the “bidirectional communication between the gut and brain”, we see this direct effect of certain guy microbiota concentrations in association with ASD symptoms in children. These GI issues include altered bowel habits and chronic abdominal pain, and there even seems to be a strong correlation in the severity of gastrointestinal symptoms aligning with that of the ASD or other neuropsychiatric diseases.

Due to the connection between the gut and the brain, logically, a treatment of ASD could therefore include something in the wheelhouse of gut microbiome health. With the majority of issues stemming from altered bowel habits, a simple aid includes diets in high fiber to keep the GI tract regular. The general addition of pre-biotics to the diet of someone with ASD can be very helpful when considering the nourishment of our beneficial bacteria promoting gut health. Alternatively, with more severe symptoms, the attempt to cut out dairy or gluten, potentially GI irritating foods, can be a more extreme approach.

ASD and the gut microbiota are only one example of how our microbiomes affect the rest of our bodies. The “Western Diet”, the prime example of American food, consists of pre-packaged, refined, processed, foods high in sugar, fats, and sodium, with much of this food coming from fast-food restaurants. In addition, it lacks aspects of a healthy diet with low intake of natural, unprocessed fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole-grains, white means, and fish. This diet leads to countless issues such as obesity and chronic illnesses. As explained by Kopp, this unhealthy diet has direct connections to illnesses such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancers, and autoimmune diseases. High concentrations of processing and flavoring “ingredients”, mostly complex chemicals and compounds, are leading to increases in certain cancers, high fats and cholesterol are spurring an epidemic of heart disease, and the constant increase in added sugars to just about everything, especially cheap, packaged goods, have caused soaring levels of Type II diabetes in Americans, especially in low-income populations. It is frustrating to see health issues become a result of community access with a socio-economic driving force. As a result chronic diseases become a consequence of ones wealth, not ones lack of education or desire to care for themselves.